A01 A02 A03 A04 A05 A06 A07 A09 A10 A11 A12 A13 A14 A18 A19 A21 F01 F02 INF Ö

A02 – Neural mechanisms of context generalization

Nikolai Axmacher

While extinction is context-dependent, acquisition contexts generalize easily. Here, we investigate how context generalization is controlled by neural activity in core regions of the extinction network. The generalization and distinctiveness of neural context representations will be assessed via multivariate analysis methods. Combining simultaneous EEG/fMRI recordings in healthy participants with intracranial EEG and single-unit recordings in epilepsy patients, we will identify the neural mechanisms that control if contexts generalize or stay distinct, and if renewal or extinction retrieval occurs. Our data will provide a unique bridge between human neuroimaging and animal electrophysiology studies of extinction learning.

Guiding questions of A02:

  • How are specific contexts represented in the human brain across several levels of brain organization?
  • How do the neural representations of contexts change during initial acquisition and extinction learning?
  • Is the generalization or distinctiveness of context representations during acquisition and extinction predictive of renewal or extinction retrieval?
  • Which neural mechanisms support these representational changes?
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Nikolai Axmacher

Project Lead A02, A03, F02

Ruhr University Bochum

Antoine Bouyeure

Postdoc A02

Ruhr University Bochum

10 project-relevant publications

Bierbrauer A, Fellner M-C, Heinen R, Wolf OT, Axmacher N (2021) The memory trace of a stressful episode. Curr Biol 31:5204-5213.e8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.09.044

Bouyeure A, Pacheco D, Fellner M-C, Jacob G, Kobelt M, Rose J, Axmacher N (2025) Distinct representational properties of cues and contexts shape fear learning and extinction. bioRxiv:2024.12.16.628638. https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.12.16.628638

Chen S, Tan Z, Xia W, Gomes CA, Zhang X, Zhou W, Liang S, Axmacher N, Wang L (2021) Theta oscillations synchronize human medial prefrontal cortex and amygdala during fear learning. Sci Adv 7. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abf4198

Costa M, Lozano-Soldevilla D, Gil-Nagel A, Toledano R, Oehrn CR, Kunz L, Yebra M, Mendez-Bertolo C, Stieglitz L, Sarnthein J, Axmacher N, Moratti S, Strange BA (2022) Aversive memory formation in humans involves an amygdala-hippocampus phase code. Nat Commun 13:6403. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-33828-2

Kobelt M, Waldhauser GT, Rupietta A, Heinen R, Rau EMB, Kessler H, Axmacher N (2024) The memory trace of an intrusive trauma-analog episode. Curr Biol 34:1657-1669.e5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.03.005

Kunz L, Wang L, Lachner-Piza D, Zhang H, Brandt A, Dümpelmann M, Reinacher PC, Coenen VA, Chen D, Wang WX, Zhou W, Liang S, Grewe P, Bien CG, Bierbrauer A, Navarro Schröder T, Schulze-Bonhage A, Axmacher N (2019) Hippocampal theta phases organize the reactivation of large-scale electrophysiological representations during goal-directed navigation. Sci Adv 5:eaav8192. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aav8192

Pacheco Estefan D, Zucca R, Arsiwalla X, Principe A, Zhang H, Rocamora R, Axmacher N, Verschure PFMJ (2021) Volitional learning promotes theta phase coding in the human hippocampus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 118(10): e2021238118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2021238118

Pacheco, Estefan D, Bouyeure, A, Jacobs G, Fellner MC, Lehongre K, Lambrecq V, Frazzini V, Navarro V, Güntürkün O, Shen L, Yang J, Han B, Chen Q, Axmacher N (2025) Representational dynamics during extinction of fear memories in the human brain. Nature human behaviour (accepted pending minor revisions) bioRxiv 2025.04.26.650560 https://doi.org/10.1101/2025.04.26.650560

Pfaffenrot V, Bouyeure A, Gomes CA, Kashyap S, Axmacher N, Norris DG (2024) Characterizing BOLD activation patterns in the human hippocampus with laminar fMRI. bioRxiv:2024.07.04.602065. https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.07.04.602065

Rau EMB, Fellner M-C, Heinen R, Zhang H, Yin Q, Vahidi P, Kobelt M, Asano E, Kim-McManus O, Sattar S, Lin JJ, Auguste KI, Chang EF, King-Stephens D, Weber PB, Laxer KD, Knight RT, Johnson EL, Ofen N, Axmacher N (2025) Reinstatement and transformation of memory traces for recognition. Sci Adv 11:eadp9336. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adp9336 

New Year, New Me: The Facts

As the calendar turns to a new year, millions of people around the world commit to New Year’s resolutions, making promises to use the new year as a fresh beginning and an opportunity for transformation. In 2024, almost three-quarters of the British population set themselves New Year’s resolutions — that’s around 40 million people (or the entire population of Canada). This tradition was particularly strong among younger generations, with 96% of Generation Z (aged 18-27) planning resolutions, compared to just 35% of the Silent Generation (aged 79+).

Most common new years resolutions:

  1. Saving more money (52%)
  2. Eat healthier (50%)
  3. Exercise more (48%)
  4. Lose weight (37%)
  5. Spend more time with family/friends (35%)

How long do most resolutions normally last before being broken?

  • Data from America (2016) shows that 75% of individuals maintain their resolutions through the first week. 
  • 64% of individuals maintain their resolutions through the first month. 
  • 46% of individuals in America keep their resolutions past the 6-month mark.

What makes resolutions stick?

Oscarsson et al. (2020) conducted research into what makes New Year’s resolutions stick. Biggest success rates depended on how people phrased their goals. Participants who set approach-oriented goals (trying to move toward or maintain a desirable outcome or state) than those with avoidance-oriented goals (trying to move toward or maintain a desirable outcome or state) were significantly more successful (58.9% vs. 47.1%) at sticking to their goals.

The study also investigates the effects of outside support. These participants received monthly follow-ups and emails with information and exercises for coping with hurdles when striving toward personal goals, and were also encouraged to set goals using the SMART technique and to set interim goals. The group that received some support was exclusively and significantly more successful compared to the groups who received a lot of support or no support at all. 

Additionally, you might feel more successful if you set goals that are measurable in numbers. While success for a person striving to quit smoking or lose weight could easily be measured in the number of cigarettes smoked or body mass index, the success for a person striving to “take better care of themselves” could be highly subjective and possibly impossible to measure.

So as we enter 2026, let’s remember to work with our brain’s natural learning system: Frame your goals positively, break them into manageable steps, and celebrate small wins along the way.